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2 Vitamin B1 Vitamin B1, or thiamine, is an essential nutrient obtained through dietary sources such as whole-grain products, brown rice, meat, vegetables, and fruits ( Thiamine is integral to the biochemistry of the nervous system, serving primarily as a coenzyme in key enzymatic reactions associated with energy metabolism, particularly the conversion of carbohydrates into usable energy ( In the brain, thiamine is phosphorylated at the cellular level to form its active derivative, thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) ( Figure 3 )

doi: 10.1159/000499694 107 BolyakovAPaduchDA

Without enough NAD+, cells can struggle to perform the work needed to maintain energy production and repair functions

Muscle hypertrophy through increased cell proliferation

While these mechanisms require further elucidation, they underscore the dynamic interplay between oxidative stress and EVs-mediated functions

122 NouskaC.KazakosS.MantzouraniI.AlexopoulosA.BezirtzoglouE.PlessasS