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Specifically, superoxide anion and hydroxyl radicals, also known as free radicals, are strongly oxidative due to the existence of one or more unpaired free electrons in their outer electron orbitals, therefore easily grabbing electrons from other substances and predisposing to free radical chain reactions, which causes immense damage to DNA, proteins, and lipids ( ROS production has been unravelled to play a critical role in the pathogenesis of RA by directly or indirectly inducing the participation of relevant cells in the pathogenesis of RA ( 2 -, inhibit the synthesis of matrix components such as proteoglycans by chondrocytes and damage the extracellular matrix through activation and up-regulation of matrix metalloproteinases, leading to cartilage damage ( 3.3 Abnormal energy metabolism Cells in living organisms acquire energy from sugars, as do chondrocytes, which obtain energy through two major metabolic pathways, namely glycolysis and the Krebs cycle

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A B12 injection is made-up of artificial B12 vitamin and is used to treat low B12 levels in the body

Our analysis demonstrates that sea buckthorn compounds interact with multiple biological targets, including TNF-, NF-B, MAPK, MMP-2, and Nrf2

10.1016/j.intimp.2023.111161 20 HuangF.PangJ.XuL.NiuW.ZhangY.LiS.et al (2022)

Collagen-building peptides demand longest timeline at 2-4 months for noticeable improvement and 6-12 months for maximum effects, suiting users willing investing in gradual structural enhancement over quick fixes