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Morphological characteristics include reduced volume of mitochondria, increased bilayer density, reduction or absence of mitochondrial ridges, and smaller cells separated from one another (1921), while biochemical characteristics include glutathione depletion, reduced activity of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), and Fe 2+ which generate large amounts of reactive oxygen species in a Fenton reaction, contributing to lipid peroxidation and causing ferroptosis (22, 23)

doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1905239 Nissen SE, Linnebjerg H, Shen X, et al

Lipoic acid, a potent reducing agent, is considered a universal antioxidant due to its amphipathic nature (both fat- and water-soluble)

And since mitochondria within the cancer cell are responsible for not only generating energy but also providing metabolites, it is unsurprising that a handful of recent studies have linked mitochondrial activity to metastasis in breast, renal, and pancreatic cancers

For instance, alpha-ketoglutarate (KG), also known as 2-oxoglutarate (2OG), is a co-substrate for KG-dependent dioxygenases (KGDDs) that include DNA and histone demethylases (Islam et al., 2018)

[51] Clostridium kluyveri NAD-dependent 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (4hbd) EC 1.1.1.61 Citrobacter freundii and Klebsiella pneumoniae 1,3-propanediol dehydrogenase EC 1.1.1.202 (gene dhaT) Bacillus methanolicus NAD-dependent methanol dehydrogenase EC 1.1.1.244 [52] E