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Following the catabolism of glucose in the cytoplasm as part of glycolysis, the generated pyruvate is transported to the mitochondrial matrix, where it feeds into the TCA, undergoing oxidation to reduce NAD + to NADH, which is the main electron donor of the ETC 87

Conclusion Viniferin and its various forms exhibit a broad spectrum of bioactivities, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anticancer, antioxidant, neuroprotective, antiviral, and antimicrobial positioning this resveratrol-derived natural product as a credible candidate for interventions spanning chronic inflammation, metabolic disorders, infections, and neurodegeneration

One such form, ferroptosis, the so called death by iron, is induced by the ROS and intracellular lipid peroxidation that is catalyzed by iron

Reactive oxygen species as mediators of angiogenesis signaling

Similarly, high intake of refined grains in rats has been shown to elevate MDA levels and reduce GSH, thereby increasing oxidative stress and promoting lipid peroxidation

probiotic treatment significantly suppressed these neuroinflammatory pathways ( Moreover, SCFAs and tryptophan metabolites, as key mediators of bidirectional gut-brain communication, play essential roles in maintaining intestinal barrier integrity, modulating immune function, and transmitting signals via the vagus nerve (Pan et al., 2025)