Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) (2011) 63 Suppl 11:S6485
Foods and Food Components that May Enhance Brain Function Berry and Grape Polyphenols Food source(s): Blueberries Grapes Strawberries Raspberries Blackberries Potential Mechanism(s) 219,220 : Reducing inflammation and oxidative stress Decreasing abnormal protein accumulation Increasing levels of neurotrophic factors that promote brain cell growth and connectivity Modulating signaling pathways that decrease nerve cell death Suggested Intake (Brain Benefits): 12 cups fresh blueberries or mixed berries 795 mg berry polyphenols daily Scientific Evidence: Study 1 Study Design: RCT Subjects: 38 healthy older adults Dose: 24 grams of freeze-dried blueberries (equivalent to one cup of fresh blueberries) versus no blueberries for 90 days Results: Increased blood levels of anthocyanins and phenolic by-products correlated with improved cognitive performance 221 Study 2 Study Design: Crossover trial Subjects: 40 healthy subjects between 50 and 70 years old Dose: Mixed berry juice providing 795 mg per day of polyphenols from blueberries, blackcurrant, elderberry, lingonberries, and strawberries, as well as tomatoes versus placebo drink for five weeks Results: Improved performance on a test of working memory (the ability to retain and manipulate a small body of information to execute a complex cognitive task) 222 Study 3 Study Design: RCT Subjects: 40 healthy adults aged 2030 years Dose: Smoothie containing 75 grams (about 2.6 ounces, or one-half cup) each of blueberries, strawberries, blackberries, and raspberries versus placebo smoothie with the same amounts of glucose, fructose, vitamin C, and water Results: Cognitive stamina was maintained over six hours of testing in those given the berry smoothie, but declined as expected due to mental fatigue in those given placebo 223 Study 4 Study Design: Systematic reviews of multiple RCTs Results: Berry interventions can improve brain blood flow and cognitive function domains including executive function, attention and memory, and processing speed 224,225 Study 5 Study Design: Long-term observational/correlational study Subjects: 16,010 participants aged 70 years and older Results: Higher intake of flavonoids, especially from berries, was associated with a delay in cognitive aging of as much as 2.5 years 226 Confidence of Efficacy: High* Citrus Polyphenols Food source(s): Oranges and 100% orange juice Potential Mechanism(s) 220,227 : Enhancing brain blood flow Reducing neuroinflammation and oxidative stress Improving function of the blood-brain barrierthe selectively permeable layer of cells that line the brains blood vessels and limits entry of pathogens, toxins, and various other molecules Suggested Intake (Brain Benefits): 500 mL (about 16 ounces) of 100% orange juice 70300 mg citrus flavanones daily Scientific Evidence: Study 1 Study Design: Systematic reviews of multiple RCT Results: Flavone-rich 100% orange juice can improve cognitive function in healthy middle-aged and older adults 220,227 Study 2 Study Design: Observational/Correlational Subjects: 2,031 elderly individuals Results: Higher citrus intake was correlated with better cognitive performance 228 Study 3 Study Design: Observational/Correlational Subjects: 13,373 elderly participants Results: Higher citrus intake was associated with lower risk of dementia 229 Confidence of Efficacy: High* Water Potential Mechanism(s): Preventing deleterious effects of dehydration on brain function 230,231 Suggested Intake (Brain Benefits): 1.62.5 liters (about 78 cups) of water spread over two-hour intervals through the day Scientific Evidence: Study 1 Study Design: Intervention crossover trial Subjects: 40 healthy pilots Dose: High-fluid diet (80 fluid ounces per day from water, other beverages, and food) versus low-fluid diet (40 fluid ounces per day) for two weeks Results: Better flight performance and spatial cognition test scores 232 Study 2 Study Design: RCT Subjects: 101 healthy individuals Dose: 300 mL (about 10 ounces) of water versus no water during four hours of exposure to a temperature of 30C (86F) Results: No water intake resulted in mild dehydration, poorer memory and attention, decreased energy, and increased feelings of anxiety and depression, whereas drinking water mitigated these negative cognitive effects 233 Study 3 Study Design: Intervention crossover trial Subjects: 12 healthy college-aged men Dose: 500 mL of water before bedtime and on waking versus no water overnight for 12 hours Results: Increased alertness and improved performance on a test of visual perception and reaction time
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Ochratoxin A (OTA) in particular, which among OTAs has drawn the most attention, has been found to contaminate cereals, coffee, and wine
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10.1111/j.2044-8260.1989.tb00821.x 72
