1 Introduction Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic, relapsing form of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) characterized by immune system dysfunction and pathological overactivation of mucosal immune responses, leading to persistent inflammation and subsequent colonic mucosal injury ( Sirtuins (SIRTs) represent a family of evolutionarily conserved enzymes that are dependent on NAD + , categorized into seven distinct members (SIRT1 through SIRT7) ( + -dependent deacetylase sirtuin-1 (SIRT1) meticulously regulates a variety of substrates, such as histone and non-histone proteins, thereby producing significant effects on metabolic homeostasis, apoptosis regulation, inflammatory responses, attenuation of oxidative stress, and even the aging process ( Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), a crucial cytoplasmic transcription factor in the STAT family, consists of 770 amino acids and possesses a complex domain structure, facilitating its diverse roles in cell signaling and gene regulation ( Short peptides are distinctive biomolecules that combine the benefits of traditional small molecules and mature proteins, offering new, more effective therapeutic agents with fewer side effects ( 2+ affinity comparable to that of albumins copper transport sites, forming an in vivo complex, glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine-Cu 2+ (GHK-Cu), which enhances its bioavailability (Figure 1A
GHK-Cu is a complex of copper and glycyl-l-histidyl-l-lysine (GHK), a peptide present in human plasma, saliva, and urine that decreases in concentration as we age
12 weeks on, 8-12 weeks off: Extended cycles with equivalent rest periods
GHK-Cu is a robust complex, but the biochemical environment of the human nasal mucosa (pH variations, mucociliary clearance) poses physical and enzymatic barriers not fully modeled in murine anatomy
Inconsistent administration Skipping doses, irregular timing, and forgotten applications all reduce effectiveness
P values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant
